<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD Journal Publishing DTD v3.0 20080202//EN" "https://jats.nlm.nih.gov/nlm-dtd/publishing/3.0/journalpublishing3.dtd">
<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" article-type="research-article" dtd-version="3.0" xml:lang="en">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher">ISPRS-Archives</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ISPRS-Archives</abbrev-journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="nlm-ta">Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci.</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2194-9034</issn>
<publisher><publisher-name>Copernicus Publications</publisher-name>
<publisher-loc>Göttingen, Germany</publisher-loc>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5194/isprs-archives-L-4-W1-2026-127-2026</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title>Integrating Machine Learning with Open-Source GIS for Reproducible High-Resolution Terrain Classification and Hazard Mapping from UAV LiDAR Data</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Kranjčić</surname>
<given-names>Nikola</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Bjelotomić Oršulić</surname>
<given-names>Olga</given-names>
<ext-link>https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9796-3094</ext-link>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Matijević</surname>
<given-names>Hrvoje</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Vranić</surname>
<given-names>Saša</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
</contrib-group><aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>University North, Department of Geodesy and Geomatics, Jurja Križanića 31b, 42000 Varaždin, Croatia</addr-line>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>29</day>
<month>08</month>
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>L-4/W1-2026</volume>
<fpage>127</fpage>
<lpage>133</lpage>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>Copyright: &#x000a9; 2026 Nikola Kranjčić et al.</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2026</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access">
<license-p>This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this licence, visit <ext-link ext-link-type="uri"  xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</ext-link></license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://isprs-archives.copernicus.org/articles/L-4-W1-2026/127/2026/isprs-archives-L-4-W1-2026-127-2026.html">This article is available from https://isprs-archives.copernicus.org/articles/L-4-W1-2026/127/2026/isprs-archives-L-4-W1-2026-127-2026.html</self-uri>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://isprs-archives.copernicus.org/articles/L-4-W1-2026/127/2026/isprs-archives-L-4-W1-2026-127-2026.pdf">The full text article is available as a PDF file from https://isprs-archives.copernicus.org/articles/L-4-W1-2026/127/2026/isprs-archives-L-4-W1-2026-127-2026.pdf</self-uri>
<abstract>
<p>This study provides an approachable, open-source methodology for terrain classification and hazard-susceptibility mapping based on UAV LiDAR, geomorphometry, and machine learning. First, the terrain model is calculated from UAV LiDAR data after ground-point classification, outliers&amp;rsquo; exclusion, and data interpolation. Geomorphometry variables are then computed based on the terrain model, including slope, aspect, plan and profile curvatures, TPI, terrain roughness, flow accumulation, and LS-factor. Reference data required for supervised classification come from the geomorphological analysis of LiDAR-based terrain model and engineering-geological information. Stable and unstable terrain units are used to build and test Random Forest, SVM, and GB models. Metrics such as the confusion matrix, overall accuracy, precision, recall, F1-score, ROC-AUC allow for evaluating the results of models, and feature importance determines the key predictors. The main novelty lies in an easily reproducible methodology using only open-source software, including QGIS, PDAL, and Python. The introduced methodology makes it possible to perform validation and code reuse, thereby transferring the UAV LiDAR terrain hazard analysis to any area of research in the open geospatial environment.</p>
</abstract>
<counts><page-count count="7"/></counts>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body/>
<back>
</back>
</article>