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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher">ISPRS-Archives</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ISPRS-Archives</abbrev-journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="nlm-ta">Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci.</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2194-9034</issn>
<publisher><publisher-name>Copernicus Publications</publisher-name>
<publisher-loc>Göttingen, Germany</publisher-loc>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5194/isprs-archives-L-4-W2-2026-63-2026</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title>Omni2LOD3: Extracting Façade Geometry and Semantic Features from Omnidirectional Imagery and Drone Photogrammetry</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Gentiles</surname>
<given-names>Demi Julianna L.</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Torneros</surname>
<given-names>Khalil C.</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Casisirano</surname>
<given-names>Jarence David D.</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Claridades</surname>
<given-names>Alexis Richard C.</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
</contrib-group><aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>Department of Geodetic Engineering, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines</addr-line>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>28</day>
<month>09</month>
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>L-4/W2-2026</volume>
<fpage>63</fpage>
<lpage>70</lpage>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>Copyright: &#x000a9; 2026 Demi Julianna L. Gentiles et al.</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2026</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access">
<license-p>This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this licence, visit <ext-link ext-link-type="uri"  xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</ext-link></license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://isprs-archives.copernicus.org/articles/L-4-W2-2026/63/2026/isprs-archives-L-4-W2-2026-63-2026.html">This article is available from https://isprs-archives.copernicus.org/articles/L-4-W2-2026/63/2026/isprs-archives-L-4-W2-2026-63-2026.html</self-uri>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://isprs-archives.copernicus.org/articles/L-4-W2-2026/63/2026/isprs-archives-L-4-W2-2026-63-2026.pdf">The full text article is available as a PDF file from https://isprs-archives.copernicus.org/articles/L-4-W2-2026/63/2026/isprs-archives-L-4-W2-2026-63-2026.pdf</self-uri>
<abstract>
<p>CityGML Level of Detail 3 (LOD3) building model generation requires accurate fa&amp;ccedil;ade representation. Existing workflows often rely on LiDAR, dense multi-view imagery, or pre-existing lower-LOD models, limiting their applicability in data-scarce environments. Additionally, most methods are developed on buildings with simple fa&amp;ccedil;ade geometry, focusing mainly on detecting openings while keeping fa&amp;ccedil;ade features planar. This study presents Omni2LOD3, a semi-automated workflow that extracts LOD3-ready geometric and semantic fa&amp;ccedil;ade components from UAV photogrammetry and a limited number of omnidirectional images, challenging the assumption that fa&amp;ccedil;ade-level reconstruction requires dense multi-view stereo or LiDAR acquisition. The study integrates existing methods and operationalizes them within a unified workflow for fa&amp;ccedil;ade data extraction. The workflow is demonstrated on a building with complex overhangs, a curved fa&amp;ccedil;ade, and partial occlusions. An LOD2 base model is derived from nadir drone imagery, while fa&amp;ccedil;ade information is captured using omnidirectional images. Fa&amp;ccedil;ade geometry is reconstructed through monocular depth estimation, and semantic features are extracted using color-based segmentation, establishing a lightweight baseline for semantic extraction from sparse image-derived point clouds. Evaluation against a terrestrial SLAM LiDAR benchmark indicates that the reconstructed fa&amp;ccedil;ade geometry adequately captures LOD3-relevant structures, while HSV-based semantic classification results in 70% accuracy, reaching 81% after manual refinement. Overall, the results demonstrate the feasibility of recovering meaningful fa&amp;ccedil;ade geometry and semantics from sparse omnidirectional imagery. These outputs constitute the LOD2 base model and semantically segmented fa&amp;ccedil;ade point cloud that form the foundation for LOD3 generation, with full reconstruction currently under active development within the broader Omni2LOD3 pipeline.</p>
</abstract>
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