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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher">ISPRS-Archives</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ISPRS-Archives</abbrev-journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="nlm-ta">Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci.</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2194-9034</issn>
<publisher><publisher-name>Copernicus Publications</publisher-name>
<publisher-loc>Göttingen, Germany</publisher-loc>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5194/isprs-archives-L-4-W3-2026-83-2026</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title>From Building Archetypes to Data-Driven Definitions: The Impact of Window-to-Wall Granularity on Urban Building Energy Modelling</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>León-Sánchez</surname>
<given-names>Camilo</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Özkan</surname>
<given-names>Taşkın</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
<sup>2</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Agugiaro</surname>
<given-names>Giorgio</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
<sup>2</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
</contrib-group><aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>Laboratory of Geo-information Science and Remote Sensing, Wageningen University &amp; Research, Gelderland, Wageningen, 6700 AA, The Netherlands</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>3D Geoinformation Group, Department of Urbanism, Faculty of Architecture and Built Environment, Delft University of Technology, 2628 BL Delft, The Netherlands</addr-line>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>29</day>
<month>09</month>
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>L-4/W3-2026</volume>
<fpage>83</fpage>
<lpage>90</lpage>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>Copyright: &#x000a9; 2026 Camilo León-Sánchez et al.</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2026</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access">
<license-p>This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this licence, visit <ext-link ext-link-type="uri"  xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</ext-link></license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://isprs-archives.copernicus.org/articles/L-4-W3-2026/83/2026/isprs-archives-L-4-W3-2026-83-2026.html">This article is available from https://isprs-archives.copernicus.org/articles/L-4-W3-2026/83/2026/isprs-archives-L-4-W3-2026-83-2026.html</self-uri>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://isprs-archives.copernicus.org/articles/L-4-W3-2026/83/2026/isprs-archives-L-4-W3-2026-83-2026.pdf">The full text article is available as a PDF file from https://isprs-archives.copernicus.org/articles/L-4-W3-2026/83/2026/isprs-archives-L-4-W3-2026-83-2026.pdf</self-uri>
<abstract>
<p>This research investigates how window-to-wall ratio (WWR) granularity affects urban building energy modelling for Positive Energy District planning. We use surface-level WWR data extracted from oblique aerial imagery and compare the resulting simulation outputs against fixed district-average and generic WWR assumptions across two neighbourhoods: Feijenoord and Prinsenland, in Rotterdam, The Netherlands. The analysis uses harmonised building data, adapted to the specific requirements of CitySim and SimStadt simulation tools to evaluate each tool independently against a baseline. Results indicate that fixed WWR assumptions significantly distort simulated energy profiles. The highest effects occur for cooling demand: applying a fixed 20% WWR leads to an increase in the cooling demand by 106.2% in Feijenoord and 127.8% in Prinsenland using CitySim. Such behaviour happens as well in SimStadt, where cooling demand values increase by 67.2% and 68.5%, respectively. Building-level distributions reveal even stronger local deviations, particularly where baseline cooling demand is low. Finally, the findings show that while neighbourhood-average WWR values reduce aggregate error relative to generic assumptions, they still obscure building-specific peaks that are critical for accurate district energy planning.</p>
</abstract>
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