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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher">ISPRS-Archives</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ISPRS-Archives</abbrev-journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="nlm-ta">Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci.</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2194-9034</issn>
<publisher><publisher-name>Copernicus Publications</publisher-name>
<publisher-loc>Göttingen, Germany</publisher-loc>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5194/isprs-archives-XLIX-B1-2026-193-2026</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title>Geometric and Visual SLAM: The accuracy of modern handheld LiDAR scanners</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Strecha</surname>
<given-names>Christoph</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Hughes</surname>
<given-names>Ryan</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Cucci</surname>
<given-names>Davide A.</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Dotti</surname>
<given-names>Andrea</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Coelho Lopes</surname>
<given-names>Marta</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
<sup>2</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Rothenbühler</surname>
<given-names>Pierangelo</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
</contrib-group><aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>PIX4D SA, Route de Renens 24, 1008 Prilly, Switzerland</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland</addr-line>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>22</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>XLIX-B1-2026</volume>
<fpage>193</fpage>
<lpage>200</lpage>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>Copyright: &#x000a9; 2026 Christoph Strecha et al.</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2026</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access">
<license-p>This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this licence, visit <ext-link ext-link-type="uri"  xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</ext-link></license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://isprs-archives.copernicus.org/articles/XLIX-B1-2026/193/2026/isprs-archives-XLIX-B1-2026-193-2026.html">This article is available from https://isprs-archives.copernicus.org/articles/XLIX-B1-2026/193/2026/isprs-archives-XLIX-B1-2026-193-2026.html</self-uri>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://isprs-archives.copernicus.org/articles/XLIX-B1-2026/193/2026/isprs-archives-XLIX-B1-2026-193-2026.pdf">The full text article is available as a PDF file from https://isprs-archives.copernicus.org/articles/XLIX-B1-2026/193/2026/isprs-archives-XLIX-B1-2026-193-2026.pdf</self-uri>
<abstract>
<p>Recent handheld scanners increasingly integrate geometric (LiDAR-based) and visual (image-based) SLAM (Simultaneous Localization And Mapping), promising low-cost and flexible solutions for surveying tasks. This paper evaluates the accuracy of three such systems: the XGRIDS Lixel K1, the SHARE S20, and a Pix4D solution pairing an iPhone Pro with an Emlid Reach RX GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) antenna. We conducted experiments in two distinct environments: Scene 1, with continuous, high-quality RTK (Real-Time Kinematic) coverage, and Scene 2, which included an indoor trajectory resulting in a temporary loss of the RTK fix. Accuracy was validated against independent GNSS check points. In Scene 1, the Pix4D solution delivered survey-grade results, achieving a RMSE (Root Mean Square Error) below 3 cm in the &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Y&lt;/em&gt; , and &lt;em&gt;Z&lt;/em&gt; directions. The XGRIDS and SHARE scanners yielded larger maximum errors, around 10 to 15 cm. In Scene 2, accuracy degraded; the Pix4D solution&amp;rsquo;s maximum error increased to approximately 12 cm , while the Share S20&amp;rsquo;s maximum error exceeded 25 cm. We conclude that while the fusion of visual and geometric SLAM is powerful, a stable RTK fix remains critical for achieving consistent surveygrade accuracy with current low-cost handheld scanners.</p>
</abstract>
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