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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher">ISPRS-Archives</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ISPRS-Archives</abbrev-journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="nlm-ta">Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci.</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2194-9034</issn>
<publisher><publisher-name>Copernicus Publications</publisher-name>
<publisher-loc>Göttingen, Germany</publisher-loc>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5194/isprs-archives-XLIX-B2-2026-1021-2026</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title>In-Situ Gaussian Splatting-generated 3D Thermal Mesh Visualization for Urban Trees in Augmented Reality</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Delasse</surname>
<given-names>Chaimaa</given-names>
<ext-link>https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3850-4290</ext-link>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
<sup>2</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Billi</surname>
<given-names>Dario</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
<sup>2</sup>
</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
<sup>3</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Darmawiguna</surname>
<given-names>I. Gede Mahendra</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
<sup>4</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Satriadi</surname>
<given-names>Kadek Ananta</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
<sup>4</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Murtiyoso</surname>
<given-names>Arnadi</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
<sup>2</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Macher</surname>
<given-names>Hélène</given-names>
<ext-link>https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2686-0864</ext-link>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
<sup>2</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Lecomte</surname>
<given-names>Vincent</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
<sup>2</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Hajji</surname>
<given-names>Rafika</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Landes</surname>
<given-names>Tania</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
<sup>2</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
</contrib-group><aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>College of Geomatic Sciences and Surveying Engineering, Institute of Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine (IAV), Rabat 6202, Morocco</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>University of Strasbourg, INSA Strasbourg, CNRS, ICube UMR 7357 Laboratory, 67000 Strasbourg, France</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>3</label>
<addr-line>Department of Civil and Industrial Engineering, ASTRO Laboratory, University of Pisa, Largo Lucio Lazzarino, 56122 Pisa, Italy</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff4">
<label>4</label>
<addr-line>Faculty of Information Technology, Monash University, Australia</addr-line>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>23</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>XLIX-B2-2026</volume>
<fpage>1021</fpage>
<lpage>1028</lpage>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>Copyright: &#x000a9; 2026 Chaimaa Delasse et al.</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2026</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access">
<license-p>This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this licence, visit <ext-link ext-link-type="uri"  xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</ext-link></license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://isprs-archives.copernicus.org/articles/XLIX-B2-2026/1021/2026/isprs-archives-XLIX-B2-2026-1021-2026.html">This article is available from https://isprs-archives.copernicus.org/articles/XLIX-B2-2026/1021/2026/isprs-archives-XLIX-B2-2026-1021-2026.html</self-uri>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://isprs-archives.copernicus.org/articles/XLIX-B2-2026/1021/2026/isprs-archives-XLIX-B2-2026-1021-2026.pdf">The full text article is available as a PDF file from https://isprs-archives.copernicus.org/articles/XLIX-B2-2026/1021/2026/isprs-archives-XLIX-B2-2026-1021-2026.pdf</self-uri>
<abstract>
<p>Urban trees provide critical ecosystem services in dense city environments, yet current workflows for monitoring their thermal behaviour remain confined to 2D desktop-based analysis with no three-dimensional spatial context or field-deployable visualization capability. This paper presents a complete pipeline for in-situ 3D thermal mesh visualization of urban trees in Augmented Reality (AR), combining Thermal InfraRed (TIR) image acquisition, Gaussian Splatting-based mesh reconstruction, quantitative validation, and mobile AR deployment. TIR images of a &lt;em&gt;Tilia tomentosa&lt;/em&gt; acquired with a FLIR T560 camera are preprocessed with a standardized false-colour palette and fed into the MILo (Mesh-In-the-Loop Gaussian Splatting) framework to reconstruct a thermally attributed 3D mesh. Geometric evaluation against a Z+F IMAGER 5016 TLS reference using the M3C2 algorithm demonstrates that MILo recovers 13.5 times more canopy geometry than traditional multi-view stereo under thermal imagery, with a standard deviation of 4.0 cm. A colourmap inversion procedure recovers per-vertex temperature estimates from the GS-derived mesh colours, yielding a mean absolute difference of 0.7&amp;deg;C against direct T-Cam measurements (thermal camera mounted on the laser scanner), within the combined instrument accuracy of both sensors. The resulting thermal Gaussian Splat was deployed in a custom Android AR application supporting hybrid marker-based and GPS-based spatial anchoring for in-situ visualization. These results demonstrate the technical feasibility of GS-based thermal reconstruction and mobile AR as a medium for communicating three-dimensional canopy thermal information to educators and urban forestry practitioners.</p>
</abstract>
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