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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher">ISPRS-Archives</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ISPRS-Archives</abbrev-journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="nlm-ta">Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci.</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2194-9034</issn>
<publisher><publisher-name>Copernicus Publications</publisher-name>
<publisher-loc>Göttingen, Germany</publisher-loc>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5194/isprs-archives-XLIX-B2-2026-1267-2026</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title>Automatic Generation of LOD3 Building Models for High-Density Cities: A Case Study of Hong Kong Using Multi-Source Data and an Adaptive Strategy</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Si</surname>
<given-names>Guoxin</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Yao</surname>
<given-names>Wei</given-names>
<ext-link>https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7704-0615</ext-link>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
<sup>2</sup>
</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
<sup>3</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
</contrib-group><aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>Department of Land Surveying and Geo-Informatics, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Hong Kong SAR, China</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>Spatial Intelligence and Urban Computing, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, China</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>3</label>
<addr-line>State Key Lab for Ecological Security of Regions and Cities, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, China</addr-line>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>23</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>XLIX-B2-2026</volume>
<fpage>1267</fpage>
<lpage>1274</lpage>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>Copyright: &#x000a9; 2026 Guoxin Si</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2026</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access">
<license-p>This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this licence, visit <ext-link ext-link-type="uri"  xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</ext-link></license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://isprs-archives.copernicus.org/articles/XLIX-B2-2026/1267/2026/isprs-archives-XLIX-B2-2026-1267-2026.html">This article is available from https://isprs-archives.copernicus.org/articles/XLIX-B2-2026/1267/2026/isprs-archives-XLIX-B2-2026-1267-2026.html</self-uri>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://isprs-archives.copernicus.org/articles/XLIX-B2-2026/1267/2026/isprs-archives-XLIX-B2-2026-1267-2026.pdf">The full text article is available as a PDF file from https://isprs-archives.copernicus.org/articles/XLIX-B2-2026/1267/2026/isprs-archives-XLIX-B2-2026-1267-2026.pdf</self-uri>
<abstract>
<p>This paper presents a framework for upgrading LOD2 building models to LOD3 by directly exploiting texture information embedded in existing LOD2 models. A semi-automated annotation tool based on SAM2 enables instance-level segmentation of facade components from texture images, with 2D bounding boxes back-projected to 3D coordinates via UV mapping and barycentric interpolation. Recognized textures serve as queries for two parallel pipelines: metric learning with DINOv2 retrieves similar components from a curated BIM library, while TripoSR generates 3D components directly from single texture images. All retrieved or generated components are adaptively scaled and fused with the LOD2 model using Boolean operations based on constructive solid geometry. Experimental results demonstrate that the metric learning approach achieves 81.2% Precision@1 and 46.6% MAP@k with SubCenter ArcFace loss, suggesting the effectiveness of transferring DINOv2 features to BIM component retrieval. Although TripoSR-based generation is currently limited by data scarcity and input texture quality, it shows promising potential as a complementary pathway. The proposed framework offers a scalable and cost-effective solution for automated LOD3 reconstruction, contributing to high-fidelity digital twins in complex urban environments.</p>
</abstract>
<counts><page-count count="8"/></counts>
</article-meta>
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