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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher">ISPRS-Archives</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ISPRS-Archives</abbrev-journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="nlm-ta">Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci.</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2194-9034</issn>
<publisher><publisher-name>Copernicus Publications</publisher-name>
<publisher-loc>Göttingen, Germany</publisher-loc>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5194/isprs-archives-XLIX-B2-2026-1355-2026</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title>Gaussian splatting for the reconstruction of complex and highly detailed object</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Gonizzi Barsanti</surname>
<given-names>Sara</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Billi</surname>
<given-names>Dario</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
<sup>2</sup>
</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
<sup>3</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Sommer</surname>
<given-names>Etienne</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
<sup>2</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Elefante</surname>
<given-names>Erika</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Murtiyoso</surname>
<given-names>Arnadi</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
<sup>2</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
</contrib-group><aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>Department of Engineering, Università degli Studi della Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, 81031 Via Roma 29, Aversa (CE), Italy</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>Université de Strasbourg, INSA Strasbourg, CNRS, ICube Laboratory UMR 7357, Photogrammetry and Geomatics Group, 67000 Strasbourg, France</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>3</label>
<addr-line>Department of Civil and Industrial Engineering, ASTRO Laboratory, University of Pisa, Largo Lucio Lazzarino, 56122 Pisa, Italy</addr-line>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>23</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>XLIX-B2-2026</volume>
<fpage>1355</fpage>
<lpage>1361</lpage>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>Copyright: &#x000a9; 2026 Sara Gonizzi Barsanti et al.</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2026</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access">
<license-p>This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this licence, visit <ext-link ext-link-type="uri"  xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</ext-link></license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://isprs-archives.copernicus.org/articles/XLIX-B2-2026/1355/2026/isprs-archives-XLIX-B2-2026-1355-2026.html">This article is available from https://isprs-archives.copernicus.org/articles/XLIX-B2-2026/1355/2026/isprs-archives-XLIX-B2-2026-1355-2026.html</self-uri>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://isprs-archives.copernicus.org/articles/XLIX-B2-2026/1355/2026/isprs-archives-XLIX-B2-2026-1355-2026.pdf">The full text article is available as a PDF file from https://isprs-archives.copernicus.org/articles/XLIX-B2-2026/1355/2026/isprs-archives-XLIX-B2-2026-1355-2026.pdf</self-uri>
<abstract>
<p>In recent years, Neural Radiance Fields (NeRF) and 3D Gaussian Splatting (3DGS) have emerged as advanced methods for photogrammetry-based 3D reconstruction. Since its introduction in 2020, NeRF has gained significant attention due to its capability to generate high-fidelity reconstructions from multi-view imagery. More recently, 3D Gaussian Splatting (3DGS), introduced in 2023, has proposed an alternative explicit scene representation based on a collection of anisotropic Gaussian primitives optimized directly in 3D space. This representation allows efficient rendering and scalable modelling of complex scenes while maintaining high visual quality. This paper analyses the performance of different 3DGS methods when dealing with complex geometry and less-cooperative surfaces compared to standard SfM IM procedures. Included in the comparison is also the Mesh-In-the-Loop Gaussian Splatting for Detailed and Efficient Surface Reconstruction (MILo), a novel meshing method using Gaussian splats. Three Gaussian splatting methods as implemented in the Postshot commercial software were also tested. Our experiments show that MILo shows very promising results in terms of detail reconstruction, while standard Gaussian splatting excels in visualisation but is still plagued by a high rate of noise especially when converted into a geometric point cloud form.</p>
</abstract>
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