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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher">ISPRS-Archives</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ISPRS-Archives</abbrev-journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="nlm-ta">Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci.</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2194-9034</issn>
<publisher><publisher-name>Copernicus Publications</publisher-name>
<publisher-loc>Göttingen, Germany</publisher-loc>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5194/isprs-archives-XLIX-B2-2026-253-2026</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title>Experimental Validation of Human-Readable Coded Targets for Cross-Platform Photogrammetry and 3D Laser Scanning</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Raykovska</surname>
<given-names>Miglena</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
<sup>5</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Borisov</surname>
<given-names>Milen</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
<sup>2</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Harizanov</surname>
<given-names>Stanislav</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Pashova</surname>
<given-names>Lyubka</given-names>
<ext-link>https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8058-9905</ext-link>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
<sup>3</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Petkov</surname>
<given-names>Nikolay</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Jones</surname>
<given-names>Kristen</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
<sup>4</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Georgiev</surname>
<given-names>Pavel</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Vasilev</surname>
<given-names>Georgi</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Lirkov</surname>
<given-names>Ivan</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
</contrib-group><aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>Institute of Information and Communication Technologies, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Bulgaria</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>Institute of Mathematics and Informatics, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Bulgaria</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>3</label>
<addr-line>National Institute of Geophysics, Geodesy and Geography, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Bulgaria</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff4">
<label>4</label>
<addr-line>Queen&apos;s University, Canada</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff5">
<label>5</label>
<addr-line>Centre of Excellence in Informatics and Information and Communication Technologies, Bulgaria</addr-line>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>23</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>XLIX-B2-2026</volume>
<fpage>253</fpage>
<lpage>260</lpage>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>Copyright: &#x000a9; 2026 Miglena Raykovska et al.</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2026</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access">
<license-p>This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this licence, visit <ext-link ext-link-type="uri"  xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</ext-link></license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://isprs-archives.copernicus.org/articles/XLIX-B2-2026/253/2026/isprs-archives-XLIX-B2-2026-253-2026.html">This article is available from https://isprs-archives.copernicus.org/articles/XLIX-B2-2026/253/2026/isprs-archives-XLIX-B2-2026-253-2026.html</self-uri>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://isprs-archives.copernicus.org/articles/XLIX-B2-2026/253/2026/isprs-archives-XLIX-B2-2026-253-2026.pdf">The full text article is available as a PDF file from https://isprs-archives.copernicus.org/articles/XLIX-B2-2026/253/2026/isprs-archives-XLIX-B2-2026-253-2026.pdf</self-uri>
<abstract>
<p>Coded targets are widely used in close-range photogrammetry and 3D laser scanning for automated referencing and registration. However, most fiducial systems are optimized for specific software environments, limiting interoperability across processing pipelines. This study presents a cross-platform coded target framework for multi-sensor 3D acquisition that combines geometric redundancy, binary encoding, and human-readable elements to enhance robustness and reproducibility. An open-source implementation (PGT-Toolkit) supports marker generation, detection, and standardized coordinate export. Performance was evaluated using a controlled laboratory framework with systematically varied viewing angles, distances, and illumination conditions. Experiments were conducted using DSLR-based photogrammetry and terrestrial laser scanning. Detection rate, centroid repeatability, reprojection error, and cross-platform coordinate consistency were assessed and compared with those of established fiducial systems. Results demonstrate stable detection under oblique viewing geometries and consistent coordinate estimation across both commercial and open-source software environments. Laboratory studies confirm that Human Readable Coded Targets (HRCT) provide reliable, accurate, and cross-platform compatibility for both photogrammetric and 3D laser scanning workflows, which remain to be verified by field studies. The proposed framework contributes a structured methodology for experimental validation of interoperable coded targets in multi-sensor 3D workflows.</p>
</abstract>
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</front>
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