Identification of technological methods of manufacturing bronze jewellery from the Teishebaini burial site (Armenia) by means of X-ray analysis

Abstract. Urartian metallurgy remains a critical area of study for understanding the production of metal artefacts in the Ancient Near East during the first half of the first millennium BC. Excavations conducted between 2013 and 2016 by the Research Center for Historical and Cultural Heritage of the Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Armenia (scientific director: Professor Hakob Simonyan) at the newly discovered necropolis of Teishebaini (Karmir Blur)—the northern "capital" of the Urartian Kingdom—uncovered over 280 burials and yielded several hundred metal artefacts. These include bronze jewellery, weapons, horse harness and chariot fittings, seals, and various personal and ritual items. Published studies have primarily focused on the most artistically refined metal objects of the Van Kingdom, often commissioned by Urartian royalty and nobility and produced in court workshops by highly skilled artisans. However, to gain a comprehensive understanding of Urartian metalworking traditions, it is essential to examine a broader spectrum of artefacts that were in everyday use among the vast empire's diverse population. To address this gap, we selected a representative set of metal artefacts from a “closed” context—jewellery items found together in a single burial (Burial No. 12). These artefacts were analysed to investigate their manufacturing techniques and elemental composition using X-ray-based methods. Specifically, two bronze bracelets and a necklace were examined through X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and X-ray micro-computed tomography (μCT). The XRF analysis revealed significant heterogeneity in the distribution of copper and tin, indicating variations in alloying practices or manufacturing processes. μCT imaging provided high-resolution visualizations of internal structures, offering valuable insights into the production techniques and craftsmanship employed by Urartian metalworkers.